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“Fake news.” “Propaganda.” “Lies.” We use many terms to describe false information, but precise definitions matter. If we want to address information manipulation, we must understand what we’re fighting.
This module defines disinformation and related concepts, providing the foundation for everything that follows.
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Core Definitions
Three key terms describe problematic information:
Disinformation: False information deliberately created and spread with intent to deceive
Misinformation: False information spread without intent to deceive (often by mistake)
Malinformation: Genuine information shared to cause harm (leaked private info, out-of-context truth)
Key distinction: Intent. Disinformation requires deliberate deception; misinformation doesn’t.
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The Intent Problem
How do we know someone intended to deceive?
Challenge: We can’t read minds. Intent is inherently difficult to establish.
Reality: Unless we have evidence of planning (leaked communications, coordinated campaigns, financial motives), intent is inferred.
Approach: Analysts assess intent based on:
- Consistency of false claims
- Coordination patterns
- Financial or political motives
- Sophistication of operation
- Response to corrections
Intent assessment is often a confidence level, not certainty.
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What Makes Information “False”?
Establishing falsity requires standards:
Scientific topics: Contrary to scientific consensus
- Example: “Vaccines cause autism” contradicts overwhelming evidence
Verifiable facts: Contradicts documented reality
- Example: “Election had 3 million illegal votes” contradicted by evidence
Contested claims: More difficult
- Interpretation vs fact
- Emerging issues without consensus
Context matters: Same information can be true, false, or misleading depending on context and framing.
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Truth, Facts, and Trust
How do we establish truth?
Science: Repeatable, testable, consensus-based
Journalism: Multiple sources, verification, evidence
Intelligence: Source evaluation, corroboration, confidence levels
Law: Evidence, witness testimony, standards of proof
Common thread: Trust in sources and methods
Reality: Fact-checking ultimately relies on trusted authorities and evidence. When trust erodes, establishing truth becomes harder.
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“Fake News” - A Problematic Term
Why “fake news” is inadequate:
Originally: Entirely fabricated stories presented as news
Weaponized: Now used to dismiss any inconvenient reporting
Problems:
- Weaponized by politicians to attack legitimate journalism
- Implies all false information looks like “news”
- Oversimplifies complex phenomenon
Better terms: Disinformation, misinformation, false information, information manipulation
Precise language matters.
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Types of False Information
Disinformation takes many forms:
Fabricated content: Completely false, invented from nothing
Manipulated content: Genuine content altered (edited images, doctored documents)
Imposter content: Impersonating genuine sources
Misleading content: Selective truth, misleading framing
False context: Genuine content with false context (old photo presented as recent)
Satire/parody: Humorous content mistaken for real (not disinformation unless intent to deceive)
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Disinformation vs. Propaganda
Related but distinct concepts:
Propaganda:
- Communication to influence opinion
- May use truthful or false information
- Often one-sided, not necessarily false
- Historically associated with governments
Disinformation:
- Specifically false information
- Deliberately deceptive
- Can be from any actor
- Modern focus on deception
Overlap: Propaganda campaigns often include disinformation, but propaganda isn’t always disinformation.
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Online vs. Offline Disinformation
Digital changes the game:
Traditional disinformation:
- Pamphlets, radio, TV
- Limited reach without resources
- Slower spread
- Centralized creation
Digital disinformation:
- Anyone can create and spread
- Global reach instantly
- Algorithmic amplification
- Permanent (archived, screenshotted)
- Scale and speed unprecedented
Same basic concept, transformed by technology.
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Harm from Disinformation
Why disinformation matters:
Individual harms:
- Bad decisions based on false beliefs
- Health risks (medical misinformation)
- Financial losses (scams)
- Psychological distress
Societal harms:
- Undermining democratic processes
- Public health crises (vaccine hesitancy)
- Erosion of trust in institutions
- Polarization and conflict
- Violence (motivated by false beliefs)
Cumulative effect: Degraded information environment where truth becomes harder to identify.
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Not All False Information is Disinformation
Important distinctions:
Honest mistakes: Journalists occasionally err, then correct
Satire: Clearly intended as humor (The Onion, etc.)
Contested interpretations: Disagreement about implications
Evolving information: Scientific understanding changes
Opinion: Subjective views aren’t “false”
Disinformation requires: Falsity + intent to deceive + deliberate spread
Overuse of “disinformation” label can itself be problematic.
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Who Creates Disinformation?
Multiple actors with different motives:
State actors: Foreign influence operations, domestic propaganda
Political actors: Campaigns, partisans seeking advantage
Financial actors: Profit from engagement, advertising, scams
Ideological actors: True believers spreading aligned false narratives
Malicious actors: Chaos, entertainment, attention-seeking
Hybrid operations: Combinations of above
Understanding actor motivations helps understand and counter disinformation.
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Information Disorder Framework
Claire Wardle’s comprehensive framework:
Three types (disinformation, misinformation, malinformation)
Seven types of content (fabricated, manipulated, imposter, etc.)
Three elements:
- Agent (who created/spread)
- Message (what is the content)
- Interpreter (who receives and understands)
Value: Comprehensive view of information ecosystem problems
Framework widely adopted by researchers and policymakers.
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Disinformation vs. Conspiracy Theories
Overlapping but distinct:
Conspiracy theories:
- Explain events through secret plots
- May be believed sincerely by promoters
- Often unfalsifiable
- Psychological and social functions
Disinformation:
- False information deliberately spread
- Creator knows it’s false
- Specific claims, not just theories
Overlap: Disinformation campaigns often exploit and amplify conspiracy theories
Not all conspiracy theorists are disinformation agents; not all disinformation is conspiracy theories.
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The Definitional Challenge
Why definitions are contested:
Politics: “Disinformation” used to delegitimize opponents
Epistemology: What counts as “false” is sometimes unclear
Free speech: Concerns about who decides truth
Cultural differences: Varying norms about truth and deception
Evolution: Phenomenon evolving faster than definitions
Reality: Perfect definitions impossible, but working definitions necessary for research and policy
Acknowledge limitations while working with best available definitions.
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Why Precise Definitions Matter
Consequences of imprecise language:
Policy: Vague laws can be abused for censorship
Research: Incomparable studies if measuring different things
Public discourse: “Disinformation” loses meaning through overuse
Trust: False accusations damage credibility
Effectiveness: Can’t address problem not clearly defined
Balance: Precision without paralysis - act while refining understanding
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Beyond “True” and “False”
Information can be problematic without being false:
Misleading but true: Selective facts creating false impression
Manipulative framing: True information presented deceptively
Harmful truth: Private information weaponized
Context stripping: Facts without necessary context
Focus: Harm and manipulation, not just falsity
Information integrity about more than just factual accuracy.
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Working Definition for This Programme
For EMoD purposes:
Disinformation: False, misleading, or deceptively framed information deliberately created or spread to deceive, manipulate, or cause harm
Broad enough: Captures various problematic information
Specific enough: Excludes honest mistakes and legitimate disagreement
Acknowledges: Gray areas and edge cases
Practical: Enables policy and intervention design
With this foundation, we can explore how disinformation spreads, how to recognize it, and how to counter it.